Agroforestry:- Disease, pest and weed management
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
All parts of a tree - roots, stems, foliage, shoots and terminal tips - are vulnerable to pest attack.pest can be damaged range from minor damage that does not affect the value of the harvested product to severe damage that stunts or kills trees or reduces their market value. Effective management of tree pests must be based on careful consideration of ecological and economic factors. The parasite, its biology and the type of damage are some of the factors that determine which control strategies and methods, if any, should be used. Pest management decisions largely determine the degree and amount of pesticides used.
Objective:-
The goal of IPM is to use all the right tools and tactics to prevent economically important pest damage without disturbing the environment. Information gathering and decision making are used to design and execute a combination of measures to manage pest problems.
IPM is the best approach to managing tree pests.
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IPM TOOLS
1. Follow-up (exploration)
Monitoring (exploration) of newly established forests and plantations will help detect problems early, while there is still time for action. Information gathered through monitoring is a key element in any IPM program.
2. Identification
Pest identification and diagnosis of pest damage are key elements of IPM. If you find perennial weeds present and / or signs of the presence or damage of insects, diseases or vertebrates, try to determine:
■ What type of parasite is present?
■ What is the stage of the parasite present?
■ What is the size of the parasite population?
■ How much damage has there been?
■ How much damage can occur if control measures are not taken?
■ Does the pest or damage require immediate attention or can control measures be postponed until the trees are close to harvest?
Some tools are useful for conducting an IPM program. A magnifying glass is essential for magnifying signs of diseases, insects, and weed characteristics. If there are pests on the treetops, binoculars can be useful. Pruning shears and a pocket knife are needed when looking for insects or diseases or collecting weed samples. Field guides, in-depth bulletins, or other references with biological images and information on identifying trees, weeds, insects and diseases will help with identification. Have plastic bags, vials, and containers available in case you need to sample the parasite or the damage caused by the parasite by someone else for identification. For weed identification, collect as many of the entire plant as possible, including flowers, leaves, and stems.
Threshold level
Determine the threshold level, the point at which the parasite or its damage becomes unacceptable. The threshold level can be related to the beauty, health or economic value of the growing trees. Once the threshold level is reached, it is necessary to determine the type of monitoring procedure required. This decision will be based on the size of the pest population, the type of damage it is causing and the control measures available. It is also very important to consider the profitability of potential controls. The cost of control, the value of the tree, and the impact of pest damage on the value of the tree should be carefully considered.
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4. Management strategy
Decide on management (control) strategies. The management options can be very different for high-value Christmas tree species versus lower-value trees. Here are some examples of management strategies.
A. Do nothing
In situations where the pest does not harm the value of the crop or the value of the crop is so low that a control measure is not profitable, no action is required.
B. Cultural management
Cultural management manipulates the environment to make it more favorable for the plant and less favorable for the pest. Crop controls, such as good site selection, planting resistant varieties or selective pruning, make the pest less likely to survive, colonize, grow or reproduce. Cultural management can be very effective in preventing the accumulation of parasites to unacceptable levels.
Mechanical handling
Some measures exclude or eliminate the parasite from the habitat. Mechanical traps, screens, fences, and nets can eliminate the pest or prevent pest access. Tillage and mowing are used to mechanically manage weeds.
D. Organic management
Biological controls include beneficial predators, parasites, and pathogens that kill parasites. There are far more known natural enemies of pests than natural enemies of pests. Biological weed control is generally directed at introduced non-native weeds.
ü Ladybirds, laces and some mites are common insect predators. Some tiny wasps and some species of flies are insect parasites. Many beneficial parasites are host specific and do not control a wide range of parasites. Parasites and predators are often very effective in keeping insect pests down. For example, aphids, scale and mites rarely develop to harmful levels in pine or fir forests because their populations are controlled by predators and pests. Insects are also affected by a variety of bacterial, fungal and viral diseases that only affect insects.
Biological control organisms are very sensitive to pesticides. Pesticide applications to control a parasite can have the undesirable side effect of eliminating part of the natural population of predators and parasites along with the parasite. This, in turn, can cause a population explosion of a different parasite in the void left by predators and parasites.
Pesticides
Pesticides are a very important tool in IPM when large populations of pests threaten high-value trees. Knowing the life cycle of the pest, selecting an appropriate pesticide, application times, and using the correct application equipment will improve coverage and effectiveness. The ability to recognize beneficial biological control organisms, combined with crop and mechanical controls, can help reduce, delay or eliminate pesticide treatment of a minor pest problem.
Rating
Evaluate the results of management strategies. It is very important to determine the effectiveness of your management and control tactics. This information will determine if follow-up treatment is needed and will improve your management strategies for the next year. Return to the area after applying a treatment and compare the post-treatment parasite activity with the previous treatment. This is where a pest control log will become invaluable. Include your observations on where pests first appeared, what types of natural enemies you observed, where and when specific treatments were applied, and what the results were. The good practices of integrated pest management pay off both from an economic and an environmental point of view.
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
When a plant cannot function normally, it is sick. The main causes of disease in trees are pathogens and environmental factors. Trees carry many pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, mycoplasma-like organisms, and higher parasitic plants. Pathogenic fungi are the most frequent. They cause seed rot, seedling rot, root rot, foliage disease, canker, vascular wilt, decay, galls and tumors, trunk rot and tree aging.
Unfavorable climatic and environmental factors, such as extreme temperatures and humidity, strong winds or ice, can directly damage trees and predispose them to pest attacks.
OBJECTIVES OF THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASE
The primary goal of disease management is to prevent or minimize losses while preserving the quality of trees. Complete control of the disease is rarely achieved or even attempted. More often than not, management efforts are aimed at preventing the disease or reducing it to a tolerable nuisance. In most cases, forest disease management requires preventive methods over a long period of time and considers the stand as a whole rather than specific sick individuals. Christmas tree disease management, on the other hand, is more likely to consider the value of each tree.
Management measures must be economically sustainable; expenses must not exceed the expected benefits. Direct disease control in the forest is limited by many factors, including:
■ The large areas involved.
■ The inaccessibility of many stands.
■ The long life cycle of trees.
■ Relatively low values per acre or per single tree.
START
The most important principle in forest protection is that preventing an insect or disease pest attack and / or preventing further development of the pest problem is much more effective than trying to stop the damage once it has begun. . The intelligent application of forest management practices ultimately has more lasting and less expensive results than more direct methods of protection.
TIMING OF DISEASE CONTROL MEASURES
When the application of chemical disease control is economically feasible, as in the case of Christmas trees or forest nursery material, it is essential that the pest manager understand the life cycle of the disease to be controlled. For many diseases, there may be only a short window of control in a calendar year, or it may be necessary to apply the control spray beforehand, before signs or symptoms of disease develop. Chemical control measures should be applied to the plant when infection is most likely to occur or it will be a waste of time, effort and money. By understanding the life cycle of the disease organism, you will be able to make appropriate and timely management decisions.
ADMINISTRATION
Most forest disease control is achieved through adjustments in forest management practices. General silvicultural control methods may include:
■ Reduction of decomposition by rotation.
■ Prevention and treatment of fires during killing.
■ Disease reduction through wood stand improvement operations and the use of partial felling methods.
■ Use of prescribed combustion.
■ Maintenance of high density stands where appropriate.
■ Saving to reduce losses.
DISEASE INVESTIGATIONS
Disease investigations are important and represent the first step in implementing control measures. Detection, evaluation and control surveys are carried out for early disease recognition; obtain information on the extent of the attack, the extent of the damage, the possibilities of control, cost estimates and the delimitation of control areas; and to evaluate the effectiveness of control program
Northern hardwood decay
Wound-associated decay and discoloration is a major cause of quality loss in hardwood and veneer. Various fungi cause different types of spoilage disease, but the biology of the infection is similar. Each type of tree reacts to injuries by forming a barrier zone that discolours the gearbox. As long as the wound remains open, it is subsequently colonized by a succession of microorganisms and, finally, by fungi resulting from the decomposition of the wood. There is no way to get rid of the fungi once they have colonized the tree. Visible wounds are a good indication of discoloration and rot on the standing tree. Each of the decaying fungi produces unique fruiting bodies in the form of supports, fungi or hooves on the branches or trunk of an infected tree. Spores shed from fruiting bodies at various times of the year, but usually during humid weather and infection of other trees occurs at wound sites.
Administrative strategy:
■ Avoid serious injury to the stems and roots of trees.
■ Keep the base vigor as high as possible.
■ Harvesting of trees before bleaching and decaying become economically important.
■ Thin out excess stems in sprout seedlings as soon as possible.
2)
Hypoxylon Canker
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| Hypoxylon Canker |
image creadt by :- flickr
Hypoxylone canker is the most destructive aspen canker and one of the most important diseases in the Great Lakes states. The fungus enters the tree through the stumps of the branches. The overgrown tissue turns yellow, so the surface of the cortex unevenly collapses after a few weeks. Trees can die from belts or uprooting at the point of canker. The alternating bands of light and dark are evident when the bark is cut.
Administrative strategy:
■ High density stands with a minimum of other tree species will have lower losses from hypoxylonium canker.
3) Root rot of Amillarira (shoelace)
Armillaria root rot is caused by various fungi of the genus Armillaria. The fruiting body is commonly known as the "honey mushroom" due to its golden color. Worldwide, the fungus causes economically important root and stem rot in forests, orchards, and ornamental trees and shrubs. Young trees, especially conifers, are often killed, singly or in groups. This root rot is particularly problematic in open ground plantations where hardwood trees have recently been felled.
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| Root rot of Amillarira (shoelace) |
image creadit by :-flickr
General symptoms include reduced vigor, yellowing of foliage, and crown death, although trees can die suddenly without showing signs of decline. Fans or mats of white mycelium form under the lower bark of the stem and along the roots, eventually surrounding the tree. Flattened rhizomorphs (black or brown mushroom "laces") can replace the fans between bark and wood in the advanced stages of the disease. Both fans and shoelaces are easily seen when present under the loose bark just above the soil line or along the roots. Rhizomorphs grow from decaying wood and roots and infect the roots of healthy adjacent trees. Old trees or infected stumps can act as reservoirs for the fungus. In conifers, particularly pines, there is an abnormal flow of resin from the root neck of infected trees.
The disease is difficult to control, especially in forests. Preventive measures focus on:
■ Deprive the fungus of a food base through site selection, remove stumps and root systems from a planting site, rotate on annual crops for several years, poison the stumps after felling and increase the sowing distance.
■ Promote unfavorable conditions for rhizomorphic infection or growth by liming and aerating the soil, planting less sensitive species and maintaining high tree vigor.
■ Fumigate the soil.
4) Withered oak
Oak wilt is a serious disease that kills trees by plugging water-carrying cells. All oak species are sensitive, but red and black oaks are much more sensitive than oaks or white oaks.
The fungus passes from infected oaks to healthy oaks in two ways: through root grafts and through fresh wounds via vector insects. Insect spread is most severe in late spring and early summer. The fungus invades the vessels that carry the sapwood water and stimulates the infected tree to plug the vessels. The sap flow is interrupted and the tree withers.
There is no cure for infected trees; therefore, control depends on preventing the spread of the disease. Once established, the disease quickly spreads to an area through root grafting.
Administrative strategy:
■ Avoid unnecessary injury.
■ Cut all grafted roots between healthy and diseased trees, mechanically or chemically.
■ Remove and destroy diseased trees; and in lumber lots, it poisons adjacent healthy oaks surrounding a withered oak sac.
5) white pine bladder rust
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| white pine bladder rust |
image credit by :- flickr
White pine bladder rust fungus alternates between white pine and wild currant (Ribes spp.). White pine spores can only infect wild currants and wild gooseberry spores can only infect white pine. Pine needles become infected in the fall by the spores produced on wild gooseberry bushes. The fungus moves to the branches and main stem, where it eventually forms swollen spindle-shaped canker. The resin flows from the cracks in the cortex into the cancer and hardens in masses. The girdled branches will have dead, hanging brown needles called flags, which are easily seen. In May and June, blisters filled with yellow-orange spores appear on the charred areas of the pines. These spores will infect wild gooseberry plants. Currant infection causes spots that cover the underside of the leaves. Orange masses form on leaf spots in early summer, followed by brownish hair-like projections, producing spores to infect pine in the fall.
Administrative strategy:
■ Eradicate currant (will work as a control measure only in areas where the disease is low to moderate).
■ Prune the galls from the branches of high-value trees.
■ Look for disease-resistant trees, if available.
SITUATIONS OF INTENSIVE DISEASE TREATMENT
Although chemical controls are rarely used to control forest tree diseases, they provide important complements to growing practices in Christmas tree plantations, forest nurseries and seed orchards.
1 Christmas tree plantations
Due to the high value of the crop, intensive disease control can be practiced on Christmas tree plantations. Leaf diseases can be a major problem with conifers grown for Christmas trees. Foliage diseases are destructive because:
■ They can disfigure and cause severe needle loss, rendering the shaft unmarketable.
■ They can easily spread from tree to tree and from plantation to plantation.
The main tree species grown for Christmas trees are:
■ Scots pine and white.
■ Blue and white fir.
■ Fir, fraser and concolor balm.
■ Douglas fir.
Each species has more than one disease that can ruin its value. In addition, each disease has a specific life cycle and the control methods involving the application of fungicides will differ in timing, number of applications required and choice of fungicide.
Cultural management methods include planting disease-free nursery material and growing less susceptible varieties to disease. For example, Spanish short-needle Scots pine and French green varieties are
particularly sensitive to Lophodermium. Additional cultivation methods include proper site selection, good weed control practices, and pruning the trees when the needles are dry.
Lophodermium needle casting
Fungal spores spread from diseased needles to healthy needles by rain and wind. In April and May, look for brown spots with yellow margins on the needles. The needles turn yellow and then brown in May / June. Dead needles drop off in June, July and August, leaving clumps of green growth at the tips of the branches. In the fall, look for small black soccer ball-shaped fruiting bodies with a longitudinal slit in the middle, which form on dead needles. The spores of these fruiting bodies infect new needles from late July to October.
Administrative strategy:
■ Plant varieties resistant to diseases.
■ Do not leave live infected branches on the stumps at harvest time, as they act as reservoirs for disease.
■ Fungicide applications should be done very late.
3. Sphaeropsis blight (Diplodia)
The fungus kills the current year's shoots in Scots pine, as well as red and Austrian pines of all ages. It overwinters on shoots, cones and in the trash. The spores are released during the wet season from spring to fall. Trees stressed by bad weather, bad weather or insect problems are highly sensitive. Once infection occurs, new shoots are arrested or curled. Small black fruiting bodies sprout from dead needles and shoot at the tissues. Sunken cancers can also form on the branches.
Administrative strategy:
■ Plant clean cattle.
■ Be vigilant when inspecting tree diseases.
■ Do not cut infected trees during wet weather to avoid the spread of disease.
Forest nurseries
Chemical control methods in nurseries rely primarily on treatment before the disease is established. This can be done by spraying the soil to eradicate the pathogen or by protecting the plant with foliage, seed treatment, or fungicidal applications to soak the roots.
Soil fumigation. A common method of disease control is soil fumigation. Since soil spraying requires a separate pesticide certification standard, we won't talk about it here.
Seed treatment. Seed treatments are used in nurseries to control seed- and soil-borne fungal pathogens that cause seed rot and seedling root rot. Fungicides are applied as powders, sludges or granules.
Wet from the ground. Soil soaking is used in forest nurseries to suppress plant pathogens present in the soil in seed beds and transplants. They can also be used as treatments in greenhouses and shade houses. They are most effective as preventative treatments.
Foliar applications. Protecting the foliage with fungicide sprays is a common practice in nurseries. Foliage diseases often become epidemic in nursery conditions. Crop rotation, plow rotation under crop debris, and disease resistance, if available, can help control leaf spots and pests, but close range, sprinkler irrigation, and other factors contribute to frequent and severe outbreaks of leaf disease if left untreated. The high value of nursery crops justifies foliar treatments.
Effective treatment depends on the correct selection of pesticides. Read the labels carefully. Time and completeness of the application are also important. Many fungicides are only effective when applied before infection occurs. This often requires application when the plant's growth phase or climatic conditions require it, rather than waiting for symptoms to begin to develop.
Seed gardens
Several diseases already discussed in this chapter have the potential to have a significant impact on seed production.
Broadleaf seed orchards are prone to canker sores and fungal defoliation that stains the leaves. The management consists in the pruning of the branches with cancer or in the application of a suitable fungicide to protect the foliage.
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CONTROL OF FOREST HERBS
Weed control practices in forests are designed to support the growth of desired tree species, improve visibility along forest roads, control harmful weeds, and improve wildlife habitats. The goal is to manage wood species, soil vegetation and wildlife so that each component is maximized but balanced. Vegetation management is one of the main means of obtaining a productive forest.
Managers need to integrate best crop, mechanical and chemical practices into appropriate and cost-effective management systems to minimize weed losses and harmful effects.
Objectives of the management of forest weeds
A forester can undertake a weed management program with one or more of the following goals in mind:
■ Removal of unwanted vegetation from planting sites to favor planted trees.
■ Release of more desirable species from less desirable spillover species.
■ Reduce excess plants on a stand.
■ Prevention of disease movement by root grafting.
■ Prevent the invasion of herbaceous and / or woody vegetation in recreational areas and open spaces for wildlife.
■ Control of vegetation along forest roads and around buildings and structures.
■ Removal of poisonous plants from recreational areas.
■ Control of weeds that restrict production in a seed orchard or nursery
INTEGRATED CONTROL
Successful vegetation management plans incorporate the right package of practices into well-planned programs that are executed in a timely manner. There is no single plan that is best suited to each site, so careful analysis of each site is required. Periodically review results and modify plans as needed to ensure satisfactory control.
Cultural control
Cultural weed control simply consists in carrying out those practices that favor the desired tree species and make them more competitive with weeds. Examples include the following:
■ Select the most suitable species and varieties.
■ Practice thorough site preparation.
■ Plant healthy, large and vigorous seedlings.
■ Plant seedlings in the appropriate space and replace any that die.
■ Apply the necessary measures to control insects, diseases and rodents.
■ Maintain optimal site storage levels at every stage of booth development.
Mechanical check
Many specialized machines and accessories are used in forest vegetation management, including rakes, angle knives, cutting blades, rotary brush cutters and shredders. Large balance discs and integral plows are sometimes used. In addition, chainsaws, axes, brush hooks, electric brush cutters, axes and other hand tools can be used in weeding operations.
On gentle slopes, mechanical means of soil preparation and restoration are generally sufficient to remove debris, control weeds, prepare seed beds, reduce soil compaction caused by logging, and perform small ground leveling operations.
Mechanical thinning is sometimes practiced, especially in very dense stands where reclamation is desired in regularly spaced bands and the selection of individual trees is not necessary. Mechanical thinning is not acceptable for release when the desired small trees are hidden by taller, overgrown trees or when individual tree selection is desired.
Mechanical control is not suitable for all sites. The main obstacles to the use of mechanical vegetation management are inadequate soil, the likelihood of soil erosion and relatively high operating costs.
Chemical control
Chemical control of weed species is usually practical only once or twice in the life of a wood. The benefits of herbicides applied during soil preparation and release can be evident throughout the life of the stand if their use is complemented by all other principles of good forest management. The use of herbicides is only one phase of a long-term production plan. The application of your bicycles must be necessary and compatible with all the other phases of the project.
Once the pest species to control have been identified, the correct herbicide, formulation, dosage, water volume, method of application and treatment time must be determined. Before using any pesticides, read the entire label.
Evaluation of the results
After using vegetation management practices, inspect the area to evaluate the results. Take into account the type and species of vegetation treated, the type of soil and the climatic conditions during and after application. Know the objectives of the control program when evaluating the results. In some cases it is sufficient to remove the treated vegetation; in others, selective control is desired. Initial herbicidal activity and possible damage to suitable adjacent vegetation can be determined 2-4 weeks after application. The results of the vegetation control treatments should be evaluated after about 2 months, at the end of the season and then for several years. The effectiveness of perennials and shrub control measures cannot be fully assessed for at least 12 and sometimes 24 months after treatment.
Evaluation should be an ongoing activity. Allows you to make changes to herbicide dosages, products and times of application and plan any additional control measures that may be needed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HERBICIDE
Herbicides are chemicals that affect the germination, growth and behavior of plants. In order to choose the appropriate herbicide for a particular situation, it is necessary to understand some basic characteristics of the herbicide.
Selectivity or specificity
Herbicides are not equally effective on all types of vegetation. Selective herbicides are available that control herbs only, broadleaf plants only, or some grasses and broadleaf plants. There are also non-selective herbicides that kill all the vegetation they come into contact with. Some herbicides are selective in Christmas tree plantings when applied at certain times of the year, such as before trees start growing in the spring, after they have hardened in late summer, or when they are dormant.
Mode of action
Herbicides affect plants in different ways. Some are absorbed through the foliage; others are applied to the soil and absorbed through the root systems of actively growing plants. Some herbicides only kill the part of the plant to which they are applied. Other herbicides are applied or incorporated into the soil to prevent the germination of weeds and grass seeds.
Residual nature
The effects of herbicides vary, in part due to their residual characteristics. A herbicide is considered to have a residual effect if it prevents the re-growth of vegetation for a period of time after application. This time period varies from a few months to over a year. Various residual herbicides exert pre-emergence control by continuing to kill weeds as their seeds germinate.
The application rate, soil consistency (especially clay content), soil organic matter content, soil moisture level and herbicide solubility affect the residual properties of a herbicide. Many herbicides that are absorbed through foliage have little or no residual effect (post emergence), while those applied to the soil before plant growth usually have a residual effect.
FORMULATION
Herbicides are available in different formulations:
■ Solutions that are completely soluble in water or other solvents, such as fuel oil.
■ Emulsions, which are two different liquids mixed together.
■ Wettable powders, consisting of finely divided solid particles that can be dispersed in a liquid.
■ Granules, which contain crystals of the effective chemical attached to an inert support.
Each formulation has advantages related to its method of application and the susceptibility of the target plants to the formulation used.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE HERBICIDE
To successfully control vegetation, the operator must understand the factors that influence the effectiveness of the herbicide. Effective control is related to:
1. Application rate
2. Equipment calibration
3. Method of application
4.- Target vegetation
5. Soil characteristics of the site
6. Weather conditions
RESISTANCE TO HERBICIDES
Weed resistance to herbicides has been discovered in major agricultural areas of the United States. It is important to closely monitor the results of weed control applications and follow guidelines to avoid resistance.
Triazine-resistant common lamb's quarters have been confirmed at sites in most corn-growing regions of Michigan. Additionally, resistance has been confirmed in pigweed, common ragweed, common ground grass, and mare's tail (horsetail) species. The emergence of triazine resistance is generally associated with culture systems in which triazine herbicides (i.e. atrazine, simizine and others) have been used frequently for weed control. Triazine-resistant biotypes of many other species have been identified in other states and countries.
It is important to understand the practices that lead to herbicide resistance because prevention is the best approach. Use weed control practices that delay or prevent the development of herbicide resistance. The following practices were modified from a list developed by the North Central Weed Science Society Herbicide Resistance Committee:
■ Regularly check and identify any weeds present.
■ Combine mechanical control practices such as cultivation with herbicide treatments.
■ Rotate herbicides using herbicides with different modes of action. Do not perform more than two consecutive herbicide applications with the same mode of action against the same herb unless other effective control practices are also included in the management system.
■ Apply herbicides in the tank mix, prepackaged or sequential that include multiple modes of action. Combining herbicides with different modes of action and similar persistence in the soil will help prevent herbicide resistance.
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